However, others lagged behind. The late 19th century had seen great strides in public health provision and hygiene. However, there was still a lot of ill health. In 1900, average life expectancy ...

During the 19th century, the idea that the individual was responsible for their own health was widely accepted. Under this approach, politicians believed that the state only had limited ...

They set in motion public health initiatives during epidemics. They established hospitals and medical schools. And they did so in the service of the nation. Not all lives were seen as worthy of ...